Devotional Punishments in Islamic Criminal Policy

Document Type : Original Article

Author

 Associate Professor, Department of Criminal Law, Faculty of Law, University of Qom, Qom, Iran

Abstract

Within Islamic criminal policy, there exists a category of punishments distinguished from others by the requisite intention of seeking proximity to God (qasd al-qurbah); without this intention, the act is invalid. The primary and unique specified instance of such punishments is expiations (kafārāt). Despite their fiqhi basis, these punishments have not been formally codified in the penal laws of Islamic countries, with only sporadic reports of their application in judicial practice. Conversely, some judges have incorporated such punishments into their criminal sentences. This raises a fundamental question: can these devotional punishments be utilized as a response to crime? This article, employing a descriptive-analytical method and drawing on jurisprudential sources, investigates the permissibility of utilizing such punishments within the framework of Islamic criminal policy. The findings indicate that, despite arguments against their permissibility - such as the necessity of devotional intent (niyyah) which is difficult to ascertain and measure, the potential for fostering hypocrisy (nifāq) and ostentation (riyā'), and the impermissibility of instrumentalizing religion - other evidence supports their use. This includes emulating the model of expiatory punishments (kafārāt), the greater efficacy and effectiveness of such sentences, particularly their rehabilitative and educative effects, among others. Upon evaluating the aforementioned evidence, the study proposes that, contingent upon the offender's consent, the use of devotional punishments - particularly as supplementary sentences - is feasible, though the necessity for their standardized regulation must not be overlooked.

Highlights

**Conclusion**

Although the criminal policy-maker in the Islamic Republic of Iran has thus far been unable to effectively utilize devotional punishments (*'Ibadi punishments*) in responding to crime, and scattered judicial experiences—due to a lack of necessary expertise and clear standards—have presented an unfavorable picture of such punishments, this does not mean that these punishments cannot be used at all within the crime response system. Undoubtedly, the arbitrary and unregulated application of these punishments can undermine society's perception of religion and its efficacy in managing societal affairs. However, the objections envisaged regarding the use of devotional punishments are not so insurmountable that a systematic and specific model cannot be developed to address them.

Of course, achieving this necessitates a correct understanding of "the Islamization of law" and specifically "criminal law"—an understanding that, unfortunately, in our country has often been reduced incompletely and narrowly to "jurisprudentialization" (*Fiqh-ization*). The truth is that the Islamization of criminal law requires employing clear foundations and principles that simultaneously consider the nature of criminal law as a discipline, the objectives and mission of Islam, the standards of Sharia, as well as social realities. Regrettably, no substantial and comprehensive research has been conducted so far on the requisites and imperatives of Islamizing criminal law.

Keywords

Main Subjects

References

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History

  • Receive Date: 08 January 2025
  • Revise Date: 02 June 2025
  • Accept Date: 23 June 2025

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