Civil Liability Arising from the Use of Non-Deterministic Technologies

Document Type : Original Article

Authors

1 Department of Theology. Faculty of Humanities. Yasouj University. Yasouj Iran

2 gra . figh

3 Assistant Professor, Department of Islamic Jurisprudence and Law, Faculty of Humanities, Yasouj University, Yasouj, Iran

10.22091/rcjl.2025.12817.1189

Abstract

The advancement and proliferation of modern technologies play a fundamental role in satisfying individual and societal needs. Nevertheless, the use of these technologies is invariably accompanied by the risk of harm arising from their non-deterministic and complex nature. Under such circumstances, traditional foundations of civil liability may prove inadequate to fully address such harms. Accordingly, there is a growing need to reassess the foundations and rules governing liability systems in light of accelerating scientific and technological developments. Mere developmentalism cannot serve as a justification for the unchecked expansion of high-risk technologies; rather, maintaining a balance between innovation and the protection of individual rights is imperative. Using a descriptive-analytical approach and relying on library-based sources, this study critically examines the traditional foundations of civil liability and explores the contemporary bases for the necessity of compensating harms caused by emerging technologies. In doing so, it draws upon modern theories such as development risk, legitimate expectations, and the principle of social justice. These theories are examined and analyzed in light of established Islamic jurisprudential principles, including Ghurūr (inducement into error), lā ḍarar (the no-harm principle), Itlāf bi al-tasbīb (indirect causation of loss), and Iḥtirām (the principle of respect for persons and property). The findings indicate that the establishment of a strict liability regime grounded in these foundations can provide an effective response to the challenges posed by modern non-deterministic technologies. By emphasizing the prevention of harm, such an approach promotes corrective justice and the optimal allocation of resources, while also facilitating a balance between technological advancement and the protection of individual rights within society. Moreover, this model is well-supported and justified from both jurisprudential and legal perspectives.

Highlights

The Scope of Duties of Law Enforcement Officers and Judicial Police in Dealing with Individuals Unrelated to the Crime

Ardavan Arzhang[1]

Mohammad Reza Ghorbani[2]

Fatemeh Alizadeh[3]

Abstract

The consequences of a crime sometimes befall other individuals who have not played a role in the commission of the crime. Therefore, the scope of the duties and authorities of the judicial police in dealing with individuals unrelated to the crime, similar to their dealings with the perpetrator himself and the crime, must be based on the law and be clear and transparent. Sometimes, after the commission of an apparent crime, the person is pursued by the officers, and then, in the course of the pursuit, in order to escape from the law enforcement officers, the person hides in a residential home or an academic environment. In this case, what is the duty of the judicial police? Can they enter the private domain of individuals unrelated to the crime without a judicial warrant? The Iranian legislature's approach is such that for the inspection of residences, whether the place belongs to the accused person or another person (not involved in the realization of the crime), different laws have not been enacted, and in both cases, one law is applied, while a difference and distinction in this regard is necessary. Proving this difference and the need to create a differential approach is the outcome of this paper. The present research has utilized a descriptive-analytical method and library resources.

Keywords: Judicial Police, Individuals Unrelated to the Crime, Flagrant Offense, Non-Flagrant Offense.

 

 

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[1] Associate Professor, Faculty of Humanities, University of Yasouj, Yasouj, Iran; (Corresponding Author) Email: Arzhang1345@gmail.com

[2] PhD Student of Fiqh and Fundamentals of Islamic Law, Meybod University, Yazd, Iran; Email: mohammad.ghorbani7118@gmail.com

[3] Assistant Professor, Faculty of Humanities, University of Yasouj, Yasouj, Iran; Email: Fat.alizadeh1352@gmail.com

Keywords

نتیجه‌گیری

مبنای مسئولیت گاه قرارداد و گاه عرف یا قانون است که در صورت اخیر، مسئولیت قهری خواهد بود. در صورتی که قراردادی نباشد و فناوری (محصول یا روش) فاقد قطعیت علمی بوده و آسیبی بیش از عوارض و هشدارهای معمول را در پی داشته باشد، باید با استفاده از مبانی به‌روزتر و پذیرفته‌شده و فراتر از مسئولیت مبتنی بر تقصیر، در جهت کاهش آسیب و تضمین حقوق بزه‌دیده، اسباب دخیل را مسئول شمرد. از این‌رو با بهره‌گیری از مبانی فقهی و حقوقی می‌‌توان علاوه ‌بر مسئول شمردن اشخاص دخیل، ضمانت اجرا طراحی کرد تا منابع به صورت کارآمد به کار گرفته شوند.

چنان‌که مسئولیت محض به عنوان مبنای حقوقی، صرفِ توجه ضرر به زیان‌دیده و وجود رابطه سببیت بین زیان و عامل آن را برای مسئولیت وی کافی می‌داند و مانند قاعده فقهی اتلاف، تقصیر را شرط مسئولیت ندانسته ‌است. از مبانی حقوقی دیگر، اصل پیشگیرانه (و احتیاط) کاربرد ویژه‌ای دارد و از همان ابتدا به عنوان ناظر بر روند طراحی و تولید فناوری نقش مؤثری ایفا خواهد نمود. مبانی فقهی نیز در راستا با همان مبانی حقوقی عمل خواهند کرد؛ به طوری که قاعده لاضرر، ضرر ناموجه را برنمی‌تابد و یا شخصی که از طریق محصول سود زیادی به دست می‌آورد، باید زیان پدید آمده از آن را نیز جبران کند و این امری است که از قاعده‌ی «مَنْ لَهُ الْغُنْمُ فَعَلَیْهِ الْغُرْمُ» نشأت می‌گیرد.

گفتنی است گرچه مبانی مختلف، استدلال‌های متفاوتی داشته و راهی یکسان را پیش‌رو نگرفته‌اند، اما همسویی دارند و آن اینکه فناوری به عنوان پدیده‌ای جدایی‌ناپذیر از زندگی و در غالب موارد پرریسک، از مسئولیت مبتنی بر تقصیر خارج شده و از مبانی‌ای جهت مسئولیت مدنی بهره می‌برد که زیان‌دیده سهل‌تر به حقوق خویش برسد. همچنین طبق قاعده غرور به عنوان مبنای فقهی مسئولیت، سوءاستفاده از اعتماد شخص مصرف‌کننده عمل ناپسند و مورد نکوهشی است که شخص سوءاستفاده‌کننده باید عواقب کار خویش را جبران کند.

با توجه به دشواری اثبات تقصیر و رابطه سببیت در فناوری‌های پیچیده، راهکارهای زیر پیشنهاد می‌شود:

یک: ایجاد سیستم‌های داوری تخصصی برای حل سریع‌تر و کارشناسانه‌تر اختلافات.

دو: وضع قوانینی در جهت مسئولیت محض برای آسیب‌های ناشی از فناوری‌های غیرقطعی، بدون نیاز به اثبات تقصیر.

سه: اجرای مدیریت تدریجی مسئولیت با الزام شرکت‌ها به گزارش آسیب‌های اولیه و اخذ مجوز برای ارتقاء فناوری.

چهار: تأسیس صندوق جبران خسارت برای پرداخت فوری به زیان‌دیدگان، با الهام از مدل‌های موفق در صنعت هسته‌ای.

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  • Receive Date: 25 April 2025
  • Revise Date: 24 November 2025
  • Accept Date: 01 December 2025

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